IGNOU MSO 002 Solved Assignment 2021-22

 MSO 002 Research Methodologies and Methods Solved Assignment 2021-22

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Answer questions from both the sections

                                                                         Section –A

Answer any two of the following questions

1.   What is empiricism? Discuss with reference to the contribution of David Hume.

 Answer - The early modern period was the heyday of the investigation of the ideas of causation, moral good and evil, and many other philosophically contested ideas. Every modern philosopher accepted some version of the theory of ideas—the view that we immediately perceive certain mental entities called ideas, but don’t have direct access to physical objects. Hume holds an empiricist version of the theory, because he thinks that everything we believe is ultimately traceable to experience.

He begins with an account of perceptions, because he believes that any intelligible philosophical question must be asked and answered in those terms. He uses perception to designate any mental content whatsoever, and divides perceptions into two categories, impressions and ideas.

Impressions include sensations as well as desires, passions, and emotions. Ideas are “the faint images of these in thinking and reasoning” (T 1.1.1.1/1). He thinks everyone will recognize his distinction, since everyone is aware of the difference between feeling and thinking. It is the difference between feeling the pain of your present sunburn and recalling last year’s sunburn.

Hume distinguishes two kinds of impressions: impressions of sensation, or original impressions, and impressions of reflection, or secondary impressions. Impressions of sensation include the feelings we get from our five senses as well as pains and pleasures, all of which arise in us “originally, from unknown causes” (T 1.1.2.1/7). He calls them original because trying to determine their ultimate causes would take us beyond anything we can experience. Any intelligible investigation must stop with them.

Impressions of reflection include desires, emotions, passions, and sentiments. They are essentially reactions or responses to ideas, which is why he calls them secondary. Your memories of last year’s sunburn are ideas, copies of the original impressions you had when the sunburn occurred. Recalling those ideas causes you to fear that you’ll get another sunburn this year, to hope that you won’t, and to want to take proper precautions to avoid overexposure to the sun.

Perceptions—both impressions and ideas—may be either simple or complex. Complex impressions are made up of a group of simple impressions. My impression of the violet I just picked is complex. Among the ways it affects my senses are its brilliant purple color and its sweet smell. I can separate and distinguish its color and smell from the rest of my impressions of the violet. Its color and smell are simple impressions, which can’t be broken down further because they have no component parts.

Hume initially distinguishes impressions and ideas in terms of their degree of force and vivacity. Impressions are more forceful and vivacious than ideas. My impression of this ripe tomato’s bright red color is as vivid as anything could be. Last year’s tomatoes were just as vivid when I was looking at them, but now my idea of them is much less vivid than my impressions of the tomato in front of me. Since last year’s tomatoes were the same color, the difference can’t be that they are different shades of red; the difference must lie in the sharpness, clarity, and brightness of my impressions—their force and vivacity. At various times, Hume tries other ways of characterizing the difference between impressions and ideas, but he was never completely satisfied with them. Still, what he says works well enough to give us a handle on the felt differences between impressions and ideas.

2.   What is ethnography? In what way does it differ from survey research?

 Answer-Simply put, netnography is online ethnography research, that is, it is the conducting of ethnography research via the internet. Netnography adapts the ethnographic research methodology to the study of online communities in order to discover the natural behavioral patterns of internet users. 

As a modern model of ethnographic investigation, netnography uses the data gathered through digital communications in varying online communities to trace and analyze patterns of social interaction. Just like ethnography research, netnography also requires close observation of interactional patterns in order to arrive at the most objective conclusions. 

There are several types of ethnographic research, namely; business, educational and medical ethnographic research. All based on different fields of human endeavor and each type is defined by specific characteristics. Ethnographic research is a multi-dimensional research design that can be adapted to different fields including business, medicine, education, and psychology. 

Educational ethnographic research is a research design that involves observing teaching and learning methods and how these affect classroom behaviors. This research model pays attention to pedagogy, its effects on learning outcomes and overall engagements by stakeholders within the classroom environment. 

Typically, educational ethnographic research studies students’ attitudes, academic motivations, and dispositions to learning. To do this, the researcher combines non-participant observation methods with direct participant observation techniques in order to gather the most relevant and objective data. 

Ethnographic research should be used in the early stages of user-focused systematic investigations. This is because ethnography research helps you to gather useful information about the dispositions, goals, and habits of the research variables in specific contexts. 

Ethnography research is most suitable for complex research processes especially in markets and customer settings. In market research, ethnography allows organizations to gain insights into consumer habits and receive first-hand feedback on the extent to which their product or service meets the needs of target markets.

This research design is also useful for examining social behaviors and interactions. It is extremely beneficial in the study employees' disposition to organizational work culture and policies. 

While ethnographic research helps businesses bridge product gaps and improve consumers' experience, there are certain situations where this research design is counter-productive. Ethnographic research should not be used in processes that require statistically valid analysis, test-runs or group comparisons. 

3.   Critically examine the nature and scope of comparative method in social science research.

 

 Answer-The term ’comparative politics’ is of recent origin and came into vogue in the fifties of the present century and is indicative of the expanding horizon of political science. The political scientists made a bid to study the political reality through a new techniques and approaches. The old concepts were also seen in new light. One of the main reason which encouraged the development of new approach for the study of politics was dissatisfaction with the traditional descriptive approach to the subject. The scholars laid greater emphasis on informal political process rather.

The term ’comparative politics’ is of recent origin and came into vogue in the fifties of the present century and is indicative of the expanding horizon of political science. The political scientists made a bid to study the political reality through a new techniques and approaches. The old concepts were also seen in new light. One of the main reason which encouraged the development of new approach for the study of politics was dissatisfaction with the traditional descriptive approach to the subject. The scholars laid greater emphasis on informal political process rather Politics is a continuous, timeless, ever-changing and universal activity having its key manifestation in the making of a decision to face and solve a ‘predicament’. It “flows from a special kind of activity, a form of human behaviour.” It refers to the making or taking of a decision in which some political action is involved. It is a different thing that political scientists define and interpret the term ‘political action’ in their own ways that ascribes to them the title of being a conservative, or a traditionalist, or a modernist. It is for this reason that while Oakeshott defines political activity as “an activity in which human beings, related to one another as members of a civil association, think and speak about the arrangements and the conditions of their association from the point of view of their desirability, make proposals about changes in these arrangements and conditions, try to persuade others of the desirability of the proposed changes and act in such a manner as to promote the changes”; David Easton treats it as an action for the ‘authoritative allocation of values’; Harold Lasswell and Robert Dahl describe it as ‘a special case in the exercise of power’; and Jean Blondel lays emphasis on the point of ‘decision taking’. However, a fine interpretation of the term ‘political activity’ is thus given by Oakeshott who says: “In political activity, then, men sail a boundless and bottomless sea; there is neither harbour for shelter nor floor for anchorage; neither starting place nor appointed destination. The enterprise is to keep afloat on an even keel; the sea is both friend and enemy.”

Political activity emanates from a situation of ‘predicament’—a form of human behaviour in which the interests of persons, more than one, clash or interact for the purpose of having an allocation of binding values in their respective favours. The moment a voice is raised in a group or a community of people for a common rule or policy on any issue whatsoever, a predicament is created in the sense that even to decide against the demand requires to take a decision. The matter does not stop here. Further problem arises when the members of a group or a community advocate mutually exclusive policies. The result is clash of interests and the stage of resolution of conflicts can be achieved either by peaceful means of reasoning, persuasion, adjustments, diplomacy or compromise or by the violent means of force and coercion. While, in the former case, competing agents may come piecemeal to abandon a part of their demands in order to have a mutually acceptable solution, in the latter case, the policy of one section may, wholly or largely,

4.      Discuss the participatory approach to social research.

Answer-Participatory research integrates scientific investigation with education and political action. Researchers work with members of a community to understand and resolve community problems, to empower community members, and to democratize research. The methods of participatory research include group discussions of personal experience, interviews, surveys, and analysis of public documents. Topics that have been investigated with this approach include community issues such as polluted water supplies and the school curriculum, employment issues such as working conditions and unionization, and theoretical issues about consent and resistance to domination. For social scientists who question the traditions of being detached and value-free, and who seek an approach that is less hierarchical and that serves the interests of those with little power, participatory research is a valuable alternative.

Participatory research can be identified by five characteristics: (1) participation by the people being studied; (2) inclusion of popular knowledge; (3) a focus on power and empowerment; (4) consciousness raising and education of the participants; and (5) political action. A precise definition should be avoided so that each group that does participatory research can be free to develop some of its own methods.

Participation in the research process by the people being studied is best viewed as a continuum that includes low levels of participation, such as asking people who are interviewed to read and comment on the transcripts of their interviews, as well as high levels of participation. Ideally, community members have a significant degree of participation and control, and help to determine the major questions and overall design of the study. Second, participatory research validates popular knowledge, personal experience and feelings, and artistic and spiritual expressions as useful ways of knowing. If researchers are to work with community members as co-investigators, they must respect people's knowledge. Moreover, one of the rationales for community participation in research is the assumption that people understand many aspects of their situation better than outsiders do. Practitioners have used group discussions, photography, theater, and traditional tales to draw on popular knowledge (Barndt 1980; Luttrell 1988).

A focus on power and empowerment also distinguishes most participatory research. "The core issue in participatory research is power. . . the transformation of power structures and relationships as well as the empowerment of oppressed people," states Patricia Maguire in her excellent analysis of the field (1987, ). Participatory researchers differ widely in their positions on empowerment, and include radicals who try to transform the power structure by mobilizing peasants to wrest land from the ruling class, as well as conservatives who ignore power relations and focus on limited improvements such as building a clinic or a collective irrigation system.

The fourth characteristic of participatory research—consciousness raising and education—is closely related to power. Group discussions and projects typically attempt to reduce participants' feelings of self-blame and incompetence, and try to relate personal problems to unequal distributions of power in the community and the society. Participants often become visibly more confident and effective as they speak out in discussions, learn that others share some of their experiences, and learn research skills and relevant technical information.

In some cases, participatory research produces major changes, as exemplified by a project with residents of a small town in the state of Washington. The town was going to be destroyed by the expansion of a dam, and the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers was planning to disperse the community. But with the assistance of Professor Russell Fox and numerous undergraduates from Evergreen State College, residents clarified their own goals for a new community, learned about the planning process, and produced a town-sponsored plan for a new town. Their plan was accepted by the Corps of Engineers after prolonged struggle involving the courts and the U.S. Congress. The new town thrived and continued to involve the entire community in planning decisions (Comstock and Fox 1982)

5.      Explain the historical method of research in social sciences.

Answer-The term ‘method’ means an apt way of doing something. Every science has to use an appropriate way or a suitable method of investigating into its field of study. Sociology, as we have discussed earlier, is also a science. It would also therefore, use certain methods by which sociological facts could be collected, analysed and put into proper form and certain conclusions drawn from them.

The question of proper methodology is of great significance in Sociology because the claim of our subject to be regarded a science depends upon the use of a methodology which can eliminate the possibility of personal bias from influencing our comprehension and evaluation of social facts.

Sociology is still in its infancy. It has therefore, not been able to find a method of its own appropriate for its researches. It has however, met with appreciable success in analysing the social phenomenon and its use of methods employed by other social sciences is quite proper.

Sociology, like every other science is a objective study of natural systems and since the social system, like all systems, evolves in course of time, it must be investigated m the very process of its evolution through methods used in such branches of study.

As the social phenomenon is very complex and the data to be collected are very large it is difficult to suggest which particular method should be employed by Sociology. The sociologists have, therefore, been employing various methods for investigating social phenomenon.

According to Chapin, there are three main methods of Sociology. These are the historical method, the statistical method and field work observation method. Ellwood has mentioned five methods: anthropological or comparative method, historical method, survey method, deductive method and philosophical method. Hart also has mentioned five methods. These are common sense method, historical method, observation method. Laboratory or experimental method and statistical method.

The Historical Method consists of a study of events, processes and institutions of past civilizations for the purpose of finding the origins or antecedents of contemporary social life and thus of understanding its nature and working.

History and Sociology are so much inter-related that some of the sociologists like G. E. Howard regard history to be past Sociology, and Sociology present History, it is evident that our present forms of social life, our customs or ways of living have their roots in the past and they can, therefore, be best explained when they are traced back to their sources. This can be possible only with the help of History. Social heritage is another name for history.

But this method cannot help us in studying all the problems of Sociology. The scope of Sociology cannot be limited to the study of facts provided by History.

The historical facts, as contained in life histories, diaries, etc., may be revealing but they have little use for scientific investigation, they may not be able to answer all the questions that may be raised, by a sociologist. Further, the historical facts also run the risk of not being studied objectively by the interpreters.

The Historical Method, therefore, was being not wholly adequate and dependable for the study of social phenomenon, calls for the employment of other methods for enquiry into field of sociology.

Section-B

Write a research report on any one of the following topics in about 3000 words.

1.   Role of the State in a pandemic situation.

2.   Role of youth in contemporary Indian society.

Answer-Youth is the most important and dynamic segment of the population in any country. It is believed that developing countries with large youth population could see tremendous growth, provided they invest in young people’s education, health and protect and guarantee their rights. We can undoubtedly say that today’s young are tomorrow’s innovators, creators, builders and leaders.But they need the required support in terms of good health and opportunities skills to transform the future. The economic trigger happens when a county’s more hands to work available than more mouths to feed. To put it succinctly, the working-age population has to be larger than the dependent population. Almost 34 per cent of the Indian population consists of youth. They have the power to change the nation. The young mind will be more fresh and innovative which helps in the progress of the country. But adequate opportunities should be given to the youth to represent their ideas and policies for the upliftment of the nation. The only way to express the ideas and to implement their policies in politics. Young people should be motivated to take part in politics and to occupy the high positions such as Prime Minister, Governor and Chief Minister.Knowledge and unity speak a lot rather than experience. For instance, a mass protest by the youth in the Marina beach for Jallikattu is a prominent example of the strength of youth. If the ruling power is given in the hands of the youth, then definitely India will become a developed nation in 2020. They have the power to change. Education programs should aim to teach and young minds right from the school level the importance of choosing the right people who would take charge of governance. Conventionally, youth have been asked to keep away from politics. Youth should be motivated to consider politics as a means to serve the nation. They should be oriented on anti-corruption drives with a focus on prevention, education, and strategies for fighting corruption. Good governance is realistic with youth empowerment. The pivotal role of a youth who are afresh with ideas and not ideals will help in this movement towards a transparent civil society structure which can influence the political administration for the benefit of the society. For Eg: Youth Arts and Sports Club once a prominent site in Kerala’s villages had a dual role to encourage youths participation in social and political activities through awareness and also empowering the people for rights and assisting them at various levels.Over the years, this has decreased owing to the relative unimportance and support given by the political and state machinery in promoting such youth initiatives, in spite of the fact that they were effective systems to encourage youth towards politics and disseminate information at the grassroots level. It is only through a strong system of representation that democracy work and it is only through.
Our nations need them to resolve most of our problems. The nation is facing a lot of problems, and I believe that youths are capable of solving them. They just need to be given a chance to prove themselves. Youths have the power to unite individuals in the six ethnic groups. Racism is an ongoing issue around the world. Individuals are fighting against each other because of the complexion of their skin and the texture of their hairReligion is another issue, the youths can convince their fellow man to live in peace and love. All of us are one and we should not allow these little differences to push us away from each other.
Their also a lot of crime taking place. Women are being killed by their abusive husbands. Person’s homes, businesses, are being broken into.

3. Significance of online education in India.

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